58 Maranga Mai! were advanced; those who lived in the cities who were still ‘Māori’ but were making progress; and those who lived in rural areas, spoke Māori, and remained backward and retarded (Taonui, 2008). Apart from retaining a notional culture based on poi and haka, the report recommended more integration (Walker, 2004, p. 511). Domestic and international consciousness raising In the melting pot of the cities, Māori youth resisted and adapted to new circumstances with the advantage that, living in closer proximity to Pākehā, they were more ‘streetwise’ than their rural kin. If given direction, this ‘streetwiseness’ represented the potential for transformative change because proximity and knowledge of a dominant culture creates the potential for emancipation in subjugated cultures (Freire, 1972, p. 149). Alienation paved a path to conscious radical protest (Newbold, Taonui, 2011). Some connected across a bridge of cultural loss. Others linked personal and collective experiences of racism with the wider colonial history of Māori. While structurally prejudiced, greater tertiary education opportunities, including for those who completed degrees and those who did not, introduced Māori to new analytical tools from Marxist, feminist, decolonial and anti-racism discourses (Taonui, 2021). Awareness increased against a backdrop of the struggle for international human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was followed by the decolonisation of third world countries, the American Civil Rights Movement, and the passing of the United Nation’s International Convention for the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). Indigenous peoples' movements were also on the rise. The first meetings of Māori, Aboriginal and North American Indian representatives occurred in 1971 and 1974. Māori took inspiration from Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, and other African American activists. Posters of Che Guevara and cool-looking African Americans became popular accessories in the tool kits of aspiring activists (Taonui, 2021). The metropolitan media raised awareness through prominent public debates over the Bennett affair, the 1960 tour, and the publication of Washday at the Pa, which patronised Māori life. With the introduction of television, Māori witnessed Black athletes giving Black Power salutes at the Mexico Olympics, the death of Martin Luther King in 1968, protests at home and abroad against the Vietnam War, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy of 1972, and the Wounded Knee occupation in South Dakota in 1973 (Taonui, 2021). All Blacks tour to South Africa (1960) Māori activists marched against the New Zealand Rugby Football Union decision to exclude Māori players from the 1960 tour to South Africa, declaring ‘No Māori, No Tour’, chanting ‘all whites All Blacks tour’ and ‘fe, fi, fo fum, ain’t no hōris in that scrum’. Māori activists would go onto up-skill in the domestic vehicles of CARE (Citizens Association for Racial Equality) and HART (Halt All Racist Tours). Māori activist, Tama Poata, is credited with inventing the latter’s name. Ngāhuia Te Awekōtuku and Donna Awatere contributed to the Women’s Liberation Movement. Syd Jackson was active in the union movement (Poata-Smith, 1996, pp. 98-102). An unaddressed history (1860 to 1980) Alongside this, the emerging urban Māori movement was also learning lessons from past broken promises. At Kohimarama in 1860, the Crown promised chiefs an annual consultative hui, an advisory Native Council, and ongoing discussions, none of which ever materialised (Cox, 1993, pp. 77-80). Crown support for Apirana Ngata’s consolidation and development schemes on 240,000 hectares of Māori land between 1909 and 1940 was conditional on his agreeing to a fund that would alienate a further 1.4 million hectares of Māori land between 1910 and 1930 (Waitangi Tribunal, 1997, Vol II, pp. 383-384, 413-423). Tainui refused to attend the centennial Treaty of Waitangi celebrations in 1940 in protest over unjust 1860s land confiscations. Ngāi Tahu attended the southern celebration but raised long-standing grievances. Apirana Ngata questioned the myth of harmonious race relations saying: