Freedom from Discrimination well-documented practice of preferential treatment of boys and neglect offemale children in intra-household allocations. Considerable direct evidence available also shows that the neglect offemale children and women in terms of health care, nutrition and related needs is particularly prevalent in certain states ofnorthern India,though the social practices that lead to the excess in female mortality are far more widespread. The broad picture is one of gender disparity with females facing severe handicaps because of social attitudes. 2.9 The discrimination suffered by women is reflected in the steadily deteriorating female to male sex ratio over the last century,it having declined from 972:1000 in 1901 to 927:1000 in 1991.The reduced access ofwomen to nutrition and health care affects their survival and the higher age-specific mortality rates forfemales in India is proofofthe neglect ofgirls and women,as compared to women in the Western world.The third world Female-Male Ratios (FMR)is substantially below unity.The FMR in India,which is about0.93,is one ofthe lowest in tlie world. Given the fact thatwomen tend to have lower age-specific mortality rates ifgiven similar care, the poor female to male ratio is unerringly an indicator ofthe poor fulfillment of health and nutridonal needs ofwomen affecting their very survival. Within the country itself, tlie female to male ratio showsconsiderable variadonwth Kerala having a FMR of1.04, which is similar to Europe and North America. As against this,the rates ofHaryana,Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthanwere 0.87,0.88,0.88 and 0.91 respectively,which were all below the nadonal average of0.93,providing further proofthatfemale deprivadon in these northern states has been far more pronounced.' Studies have shown that, contrary to dte popularly held view,'The force ofexcess female mortality,therefore,lies in mortality rates in age groups beyond that offemale infanticide. The female disadvantage in these age groups is itselfdue to a well-documented pracdce ofpreferendaltreatment ofboys and neglect offemale children in intra-household allocadon. There is, indeed, considerable direct evidence of neglect of female children in terms of health care, nutrition and related needs pardcularly in North India.'^ 2.10 An important contributory factor to higher maternal mortality is the high level of maternal anaemia and the lack of effecdveness of the health care system to combat this syndrome. According to the Nadonal Family Health Survey(1998-99), maternal anaemia adversely affected 82.4% ofpregnant women.Maternal anaemia is also a contributory factor for infants with low birth weight and the consequent problems ofsurvival and development ofchildren. 2.11 Life expectancy at birth is an indicator ofthe access to and effecdveness ofhealth care facilities, and therefore, is an indirect measure ofdiscrimination in access to health care. It is also an indicator of poverty,lack of access to education and producdve assets. While the all India life expectancy stood at59.4 yearsforfemales(1990-92),the States ofBihar, Madhya 1 Dreze and Sen, India, Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford University Press, 1995, Chapter 7. 2 op. cit., India, Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 144.