Again, the pandemic has spotlighted barriers to supports and services. One such barrier stems from a lack of communication, in particular culturally specific communication, that has resulted in a lack of awareness of available government supports. 28 Other barriers include economic difficulties,29 obstacles to housing,30 a lack of safe transport options,31 a lack of translators or translated materials or other means of accommodating language barriers, 32 as well as a lack of digital equipment, internet and tech literacy at home when services have pivoted to online delivery during the pandemic.33 These challenges multiply and increase in complexity with refugees, who often require more specialised services.34 This is true also of people seeking asylum who, while experiencing lengthy decision-making periods, have access to fewer support services and fewer rights available to them than permanent residents and citizens. This protracted uncertainty also contributes to significant psychosocial problems and health issues, particularly for children and young people. 35 Temporary migrants also face exacerbated challenges; not only are they usually the first to lose employment,36 but their temporary visa status often bars them from government benefits such as the JobKeeper and JobSeeker payments during the pandemic, as well as support from social service providers.37 For temporary migrants whose status depends on employer sponsorship, losing employment can also disrupt their permanent residency or citizenship application process.38 Challenges faced by those on student visas were raised with the Commission in consultations and submissions. Limitations on the amount of work students can do and widespread underpayment, coupled with higher student fees, and a lack of access to free health care, make students more exposed to exploitative employment arrangements and generate feelings of unsafety.39 Unlawful and exploitative employment arrangements experienced by international students, and migrants overall, typically present themselves through informal employment contracts and cash-in-hand work.40 Cash-in-hand employment, where employees do not have tax deducted from their pay, nor receive other entitlements like superannuation, is unlawful and may negatively affect students’ visa applications, as well as limit their options in accessing justice, since there will be little evidence of their employment. 41 Students often enter into such arrangements as they are unaware of their entitlements or generally lack choice in negotiating how they get paid.42 When international students have reported feeling unsafe, these perceived threats to safety often have a racial, religious or cultural dimension, 43 and they feel ill-equipped or reluctant to respond to such threats due to language barriers and a lack of understanding of their rights as temporary residents in Australia.44 Exploitative employment conditions and financial pressures add to isolation from families and culture, as do language barriers and academic pressures. 45 Together, these factors severely impact the health and wellbeing of students, who also face compounding barriers to accessing mental health supports and services due to cultural stigma, a lack of culturally appropriate services, and costs.46 National Anti-Racism Framework Scoping Report 2022 | 65