law, whose structure and substance may present or preserve obstacles to women’s equality. Many of the substantive norms of international law are defined in relation to men’s experience and stated in terms of discrete violations of rights in the public realm. In addition, inattention to rights of particular interest to women in international human rights law and practice has resulted in neglect and pervasive denial of the rights of women, in particular in the private sphere. These factors have contributed to a lack of enjoyment of human rights by women that, at its roots, has gender-specific explanations. A focus on gender recognizes that women’s unequal status is based on, and is perpetuated by, structures of systemic inequality and discrimination against women. The standard of measurement in the realization of women’s equality is not the current male standard of equality, which would simply be a reaffirmation of the status quo. Rather, a new standard of equality should be envisaged based on a reconsideration of current assumptions …7 NHRI COMMITMENT TO WOMEN’S HUMAN RIGHTS NHRIs in the Asia Pacific region have affirmed that promoting and protecting the human rights of women and girls is a priority for them.8 The examples of innovation and good practice included in this Manual are testimony to the important work that many NHRIs are doing in this area. The representative bodies that NHRIs have established to further their interests and promote cooperation have also made important collective commitments to the human rights of women and girls and to adopting a gender-based approach. The International Coordinating Committee of National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (ICC) is the global representative body of NHRIs. Every two years, the ICC hosts an international conference that focuses on an issue of specific concern to its member institutions. The theme of the 11th International Conference – held in November 2012 in Amman, Jordan – was “The human rights of women and girls: Promoting gender equality”. Representatives from NHRIs of all four regions, international and regional organizations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and States took part in the discussions. The conference adopted the Amman Declaration and Programme of Action9 on the rights of women and girls, which has been an important reference in the development of this Manual. The Declaration sets out the key principles for NHRIs in both protecting and promoting the rights of women. The Programme of Action focuses on a number of priority areas, including: political and public participation; economic and social rights; violence against women; and health and reproductive rights. The APF has a strong track record of engagement on the rights of women and girls, as well as on issues of special concern to women and girls. This work includes coordinating programmes on reproductive rights, trafficking in persons, the rights of migrant workers and sexual orientation and gender identity. In 2000, the APF organized its first major event on women’s human rights, a conference which brought together representatives of NHRIs, Governments and NGOs from across the Asia Pacific region. In 2011, at its 16th Annual Meeting, the APF committed to mainstream gender equality into its objectives and work. It also established a Gender Focal Point within the APF secretariat at the senior level of Deputy Director. The following year, APF members concluded a comprehensive regional Action Plan to promote and protect the rights of women and girls in their respective countries.10 The APF agreed to report on its actions and developments under the Action Plan at its Annual Meetings, starting from 2013. Like the Amman Declaration and Programme of Action, the APF Action Plan has been important in shaping this Manual. 7 Integrating the gender perspective into the work of United Nations human rights treaty bodies, HRI/MC/1998/6, paras. 18-19. 8 OHCHR, Survey on National Human Rights Institutions: Report on the findings and recommendations of a questionnaire addressed to NHRIs worldwide, 2009, p. 48. See also A/HRC/23/L.15, especially paras. 21-24. 9 Available at www.asiapacificforum.net/human-rights/women-and-girls/. 10 The APF Action Plan on the Human Rights of Women and Girls: Promoting Gender Equality was adopted at the 11th International Conference of the International Coordinating Committee of National Institutions on the Promotion of Human Rights, Amman, Jordan, 5–7 November 2012; available at www.asiapacificforum.net/human-rights/women-and-girls/. Introduction for users | vii