aspects. In initial consultations, the Commission was told that antisemitism is a specific, distinct form of racism embedded in centuries of vilification and persecution. The Commission also heard that Islamophobia stereotypes all Muslims as terrorists while also seriously endangering individuals who ‘look Muslim’. Additionally, racism has a specific and often disproportionate impact on women, young people, people with disability and those living in regional areas of Australia. Adding to this complexity is the diversity, distinction and overlap between communities: for example, not all Muslims are Arab, not all Palestinians are Muslim, and not all Israelis are Jewish. These insights help the Study attune to the diversity of experience, ensure that recommendations are nuanced and move beyond a one-size-fits-all approach to anti-racism. A key consideration in the next phase of the Study will be understanding whether existing approaches to address racism in universities are sufficiently nuanced to respond to the diversity of experiences. (a) First Nations experience Increasing the number of First Nations students who complete university has been identified as a priority for the National Education Accord. It aligns with the Closing the Gap target to ensure First Nations students are supported to participate and succeed in higher education. The Australian Government has made significant commitments, including uncapped university places for First Nations students and the Indigenous Student Success Program (ISSP) to fund universities to support students. However, Commission consultations highlighted the ongoing impact of racism on First Nations students. Limited understanding of the historical and systematic discrimination faced by First Nations students and ongoing experiences of racism hamper efforts to increase participation. One academic at the Study’s initial First Nations Academics Roundtable noted, ‘Racism is embedded in every space. You can’t go into a university and not breathe it’. 34 Research shows that First Nations students have lower completion rates than their non-Indigenous counterparts, with a nine-year completion rate of 47%, compared to a 74% nine-year completion rate for non-Indigenous students. 35 The impact of racism is well established in the research and cannot be underestimated as a contributing factor to completion rates. Researchers describe racism for First Nations students as: Multifaceted in nature and can include: verbal racism (name calling, jokes), behavioural racism (ignored, avoided, stared at), institutional discrimination (unfair treatment) and macro-level racism (denial of Aboriginal views of history, dominance of White values). 36 34