The Curious Cases of Philippine Civil Society and Decentralization 141 The first level is the link between civil society organizations and the public, where civil society groups have been deficient in mobilizing a broader constituency for sustained political engagement. The second level is in the relationship between civil society organizations with the state, where the latter possesses more power and has used this power to subdue pressures emanating from civil society. As regards decentralization, the section starts with a recap of what have been noted as gains and concerns in the almost two decades since responsibilities and resources were transferred from central to local governments. In revisiting these assessments, the section identifies three factors that have limited improvements in local governance and constricted the impact of such process on local development. These factors are defined as statutory, organizational, and systemic. This chapter puts forward a number of observations meant to trigger discussions among those who advocate substantive “democratic” change in the Philippines. CIVIL SOCIETY Like democracy, civil society is a contentious concept with many definitions given, from the philosophical-normative to the practical. It is not the intention, however, of this chapter to revisit these definitions (Diokno 1997; Ferrer 1997; Wui and Lopez 1997; Civicus 2010; Alagappa 2004). It is sufficient to take on a definition that provides an inclusive view of what constitutes this sphere and distinguishes it from the other spheres that make up society. More importantly, it is necessary to define how civil society is expected to facilitate democratization, taking the latter as a type of political change. In this study, we use civil society to refer to: First, a realm in the interstices of the state, political society, the market, and the society at large for organization by nonstate, nonmarket groups that take collective action in the pursuit of the public good; second, a distinct sphere for discourse and construction of normative ideals through interaction among nonstate groups on the basis of ideas and arguments; third, an autonomous arena of self-governance by nonstate actors in certain issue areas; and, fourth, an instrument for collective action to protect the autonomy of the nonstate public realm, affect regime type, and influence the politics and policies of the state, political society, and the market. (Alagappa 2004:32)