Part I Introduction to human rights education 1.3. THE INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK While steps had been taken to recognize and codify some human rights, it took the atrocities that occurred during World War II to galvanize the international community into developing common standards and processes for the protection of human rights. In 1945, the United Nations Charter was signed, laying out responsibilities to maintain peace and security and to cooperate in solving economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems. Three years later, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights6 was adopted by the United Nations, with 48 Member States7 voting in favour, the majority of which were non-Western countries, and eight abstaining. There were no objections. The Declaration was followed by two major human rights treaties, adopted by the United Nations in 1966. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights8 includes the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, equality before the law and freedom from discrimination. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights9 includes the right to participate in culture, as well as the right to work, education, health, language and an adequate standard of living. The human rights principles and standards set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights have been further refined in a series of other treaties or conventions that address matters of concern to particular groups. 1951: Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees10 The Convention defines who can be considered a refugee and outlines the rights of refugees, such as freedom of religion and movement, the right to work, education and access to travel documents. It also sets out the obligations of refugees towards their host Governments. 1965: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination11 The Convention refers to persistent racial discrimination, particularly by Governments, and calls for the elimination of all racial discrimination. It promotes education as a tool to increase understanding and respect between people of different racial backgrounds. 1979: Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women12 Along with recognizing women’s rights to participate in political and public life, the Convention is the only human rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of women. It also identifies culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations. 1984: Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment13 The Convention requires States to take effective measures to prevent torture within their jurisdictions. It also forbids States to transport people to any country where there is reason to believe that they will be tortured. 6 Available online at www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html. 7 The following countries voted in favour of the Declaration: Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, India, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Thailand, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela. 8 Available online at www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CCPR.aspx. 9 Available online at www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx. 10 Available online at www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/StatusOfRefugees.aspx. 11 Available online at www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx. 12 Available online at www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CEDAW.aspx. 13 Available online at www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CAT.aspx. Chapter 1: Human rights: An overview | 5