7.2.2 Notions of Masculinity The patriarchal gender hierarchy is reinforced by popular views on what it constitutes to be a ‘Samoan man’ and notions of masculinity. “Popular modern representations of the masculine ideal appear on T-shirt designs showing heavily muscled and tattooed men in belligerent poses. Masculinity is particularly associated with sexual prowess, the sexual conquest, and the penetration and impregnation of women.” Ramona Boodoosingh, PHD on Violence Against Women in Samoa, Inquiry document 82 This general view of masculinity in Samoa is reinforced everywhere, from in the home to adverts on TV to peer pressure among the youth. A number of people remarked to the Inquiry that western movies and music is responsible for sexual violence in Samoa. Whilst it may or may not play a small role in exacerbating it, the main causes lay much closer to home, with the promotion of this notion of masculinity from an early age by parents and the constant reinforcement of this image throughout a person’s life. The problem with the masculine ideal is that it further creates a society which holds the victims to blame and misdirects attention away from the root causes, leading to the continuation and strengthening of the violent environment. “Notions of masculinity excuse the behaviour of men and hold women responsible for it.” Ramona Boodoosingh, PHD on Violence Against Women in Samoa, Inquiry document 82 The power of a patriarchal society and ‘what it means to be a man’ can lead to men using physical, emotional and verbal violence to control their wives, partners, children and family. It can also create an environment of peer pressure where men are expected to control these people. Failing to do so is perceived to be a sign of weakness and most of us have heard someone ask the question ‘are you a real man?’ in a situation where they have been perceived to not have total control over their partner, or do not react violently when they are slighted. 7.2.3 Jealousy Jealousy was also often cited as a trigger for family violence and the prevalence and severity of jealousy in Samoa was clear to the Inquiry. This reflects the strength of the societal expectations that are put on men (usually by other men) that they control their partner. If a wife is seen to be even talking to another man it is commonly perceived to reflect the loss of control the man has over his wife. Jealousy is therefore the instinctive reaction to prevent this type of situation occurring. However, jealousy is a trigger for family violence and a by-product of the patriarchal society that has been created.