of the main factors contributing to racism and discrimination is covered below. Critical to note is that much of this work has been conducted in the American context, which has its own unique set of historical circumstances to consider – however, much from the theoretical concepts may be applicable to the Aotearoa New Zealand context. 2.3.1. The contact hypothesis and exposure/understanding of other cultures A lack of exposure to other ethnic groups is a key contributor to racism and discrimination, and repeated positive contact works to reduce intergroup prejudices (McKeown & Dixon, 2017; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). The contact hypothesis (Allport, 1958) suggests it is human nature to hold biases due to our need to label people so we can feel a sense of belonging with those with whom we share similarities. Supporting research suggests living in a culturally and ethnically homogeneous environment frequently leads to a lack of exposure and contact with other groups. This unfamiliarity can result in a process of “Othering” groups that sit outside of the mainstream ethnic group. This entails exclusion of other groups by developing fear, prejudices and stereotypes about them, while maintaining a sense of dominance and superiority about the mainstream group (Koskinen, 2015). Stereotyping and generalisations often lead to a lack of understanding that other cultures are complex and are affected by historical events like colonisation and genocide. However, repeated positive interactions between different groups has been shown to improve familiarity, understanding and warm feelings, which helps to reduce intergroup fear, uncertainty and dislike (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). 2.3.2. Racial socialisation Other theories suggest that racism is not inborn, but rather racist attitudes, beliefs and behaviours are learned by children from family members. Racial socialisation (Hughes, 2003) is critical to this understanding as it: • Argues that parents communicate their explicit and implicit attitudes and behaviours about race, ethnicity and culture to their children. • Recognises the impact of the family environment on children during their formative years, but also notes that children can be racially socialised by other social environments, like their schools, neighbourhood, the media and the Internet (Byrd & Ahn, 2020; Katz, 2003). • Notes the different ways that racial socialisation affects different ethnic groups – studies have found that: o Ethnic minority parents, compared with white parents, more frequently discuss historical racial inequities with their children and deepen their understanding of structural and racial discrimination which affects children’s ethnic identity development (Butler-Barnes et al., 2018; Hughes, 2003) www.malatest-intl.com Drivers of racism – March 2021 24