•
Systemic/institutional racism: Long-standing societal and/or legal policies,
practices and institutions that exclude or disadvantage certain ethnic groups
while facilitating the privilege of others (Bento & Brown, 2020). Systemic
racism is the type of racism that creates the most injustice and is often
denied and unseen by those from the elite ethnic group, particularly those in
authority (like the government) (Rankine, 2014).
Multiple theories have been developed by scholars to explain and provide different
approaches to analysing historical and contemporary racism, including but not
limited to:
•
Critical race theory: Referring to how institutional structures are innately
racist and that racial inequality is a result of social, economic and legal
differences between ethnic groups that serve to maintain the privilege of the
‘elite’ group in society while creating further disadvantage for marginalised
groups (Bonilla-Silva, 1997; Christian, 2019).
•
Colour-blind racial ideology (e.g., Beaman & Petts, 2020; Yogeeswaran et
al., 2018): focusses on shared human qualities as a way to promote racial
harmony and equality and by not recognising racial/ethnic differences (like
skin colour). However, this can lead to a lack of acknowledgement of how
racial and ethnic differences affect different groups’ access to services and
can be used as a way to undermine efforts to achieving racial equity (like
denying the need for affirmative action/targeted pathway measures).
•
Everyday racism: The normalised practices that are part of everyday life that
reinforce racist attitudes, behaviours and beliefs (Combs, 2018; Essed, 1991).
This can include both individual and systemic racism.
•
Racial microaggressions (Sue et al., 2007; Wong et al., 2014): Subtler forms
of racism that typically contain implicitly negative messages or stereotypes
about ethnic minority groups, and which include:
o
Micro-insults: Rude or insensitive statements or actions that
undermine individuals on the basis of their ethnic or religious
identity
o
Micro-invalidations: Statements or actions that negate the
experiences, emotions and thoughts of people of colour
o
Micro-assaults: Conscious and explicit racially aggressive
statements, which can be either verbal or non-verbal.
Jones (2000) developed a framework summarising the levels of racism, which
recognised the different spaces that racism can be expressed while also recognising
the historical and contemporary causes and effects of racism and the role of
government in enhancing or eliminating racism. The levels of racism include:
•
Institutionalised (systemic) racism: This occurs when a set of institutional
rules, policies and practises systematically disadvantage or marginalise
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Drivers of racism – March 2021
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