HUMAN RIGHTS IN NEW ZEALAND 20 1 0 Social and economic inequalities life expectancy have improved, although Mäori continue Harmonious race relations are difficult to achieve when to have lower outcomes than other groups. Cigarette peoples from different ethnic groups are fundamen- smoking rates have declined since 2003 but, along with tally unequal. There continue to be significant social obesity rates, remain higher for Mäori and Pacific peoples. and economic inequalities between different ethnic Potentially hazardous drinking 32 is also higher among groups, despite a wide range of government policies and Mäori and Pacific peoples. Rates of participation in community actions that seek to address them. There has licensed early childcare services have improved, although been progress in recent years in reducing disparities in they remain lower for Mäori and Pacific peoples. Partici- areas such as employment, life expectancy, income and pation in tertiary education has improved, and there were educational achievement, but there is still a long way higher rates for Mäori under 18 years and over 25 years. to go and gains may be fragile in the face of changing Rates of educational attainment in the adult population economic conditions. have also improved, but are proportionally lower for Such entrenched disparity between ethnic groups can Mäori and Pacific peoples. 33 be considered a form of structural discrimination. Unlike The 2009 General Social Survey found that Mäori, Asian personal discrimination, structural discrimination is and Pacific peoples were more likely than Europeans to “observed from its effects. It is a bias in our social and report that they did not have enough money to meet their administrative institutions that automatically benefits everyday needs. Mäori and Pacific peoples (62 per cent the dominant race or culture, while penalising minority each) were more likely to report major problems with and subordinate groups”. 30 In practice, this means that their house or neighbourhood than Europeans (49 per apparently neutral policies can disproportionately affect cent). Asian peoples felt least safe walking alone in their ethnic minorities. Special measures are one means of neighbourhoods at night (45.6 per cent). 34 addressing such effects. Barriers to employment and promotion continue to be The Ministry of Development’s Social Report 2009 one of the major issues for migrants and refugees, as do assessed the social and economic wellbeing of New equal employment opportunities for Mäori and Pacific Zealanders across a range of indicators. 31 It found peoples across the full range of occupations. These issues higher rates of unemployment for young people, Mäori, are discussed more fully in the chapter on the right Pacific peoples and other ethnic groups, and lower rates to work. of median hourly earnings for the same groups. The report also found that 14 per cent of the population live in low-income households. Housing affordability was particularly difficult for Pacific peoples, other ethnic Conclusion Whakamutunga groups and those on low incomes, and household over- New Zealand generally complies with and exceeds inter- crowding was disproportionately experienced by Mäori national standards in terms of its legislation and policies and Pacific peoples. Health indicators such as health and on race relations. Public opinion polling has shown that 30 Ministerial Advisory Committee on a Maori Perspective for the Department of Social Welfare 1988, Puao-te-ata-tu (Wellington: Department of Social Welfare). Accessed 16 September 2010 from http://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/publicationsresources/archive/1988-puaoteatatu.pdf 31 Ministry of Social Development (2010). The Social Report (Wellington: MSD). Accessible online at http://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz 32 “Potentially hazardous drinking” is defined in the Social Report 2009 as “the proportion of the population aged 15 years and over who drink alcohol, who scored eight or more on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)”, as measured in the New Zealand Health Surveys conducted by the Ministry of Health in 1996–97, 2002–03 and 2006–07. The AUDIT is a 10-item questionnaire covering alcohol consumption, alcohol-related problems and abnormal drinking behaviour’. In 2006–07, 22.9 per cent of all adult drinkers had a potentially hazardous drinking pattern. 33 See Social Report 2009 for further details 34 Statistics New Zealand, General Social Survey 2008: Hot off the Press, pp 10–11 71