2.4.8. Cyber-racism Racism occurring in online spaces is an understudied subject area – only a very small number of studies exist on the topic (Bliuc et al., 2018), and no studies could be identified that explored cyber-racism specifically in relation to migrants. However, the limited body of research in this area emphasises the influence of the Internet in facilitating racist attitudes and interactions by (Bliuc et al., 2018; Faulkner & Bliuc, 2016, 2018; Keum, 2017; Keum & Miller, 2017): • Ineffectively moderating content, which allows racist speech to be expressed freely and widely • Allowing racist groups to become more organised and sophisticated and to promote their views • Providing spaces for racist messages to be heard by larger groups of people • Validating people with racist beliefs, allowing them to feel heard and to speak about their views more loudly • Communicating subtle, everyday racist views that often achieve a wider level of social support compared to more polarising blatant racist views • The use of algorithms on social media websites (e.g., Youtube, Facebook, etc.) to suggest and promote more extreme content (Ganesh & Bright, 2020). An Aotearoa New Zealand study indicated that Asian peoples in this country frequently encountered racial harassment and hate speech in online spaces. However, they were unlikely to complain about racism (Suicide Mortality Review Committee, 2019). Recent research published by the Human Rights Commission has demonstrated the role of COVID-19 in fuelling racism against Chinese and Asian communities in 2020 (Nielsen, 2021). Further research is needed to understand the impact of online racism for specific groups, such as migrants. 2.5. Summary – What the evidence says to inform this research Immigration is a defining and fast-growing feature of Aotearoa New Zealand. Tauiwi arrive on these shores in the hopes of pursuing better opportunities for themselves and their children – they also face a range of challenges adapting to and being accepted within society. Historical and contemporary challenges include race-based immigration policies, government action, public harassment, and experiences of racism in all forms such as individual, systemic, personally mediated and microagressions. The impacts of racism are traumatic, intergenerational and broad. Evidence shows racism negatively impacts on all aspects of life including employment, education and www.malatest-intl.com Drivers of racism – March 2021 33