defensive behaviours to protect their self-image, status and power. Examples of these types of behaviours can be observed in a thematic analysis of Facebook comments in response to the Human Rights Commission’s “Give Nothing to Racism” campaign, where Pākehā individuals commented in ways that acted to: o Oppress lower-status groups (see also Verkuyten & Yogeeswaran, 2017) o Deny racism, discrimination and white privilege exist o Accuse other ethnic groups (like Māori) of being more racist o Claim they are more victimised and marginalised than any other group in society o Refute the need for policies that attempt to dismantle the hierarchy (see also DiAngelo, 2012;) – such as arguing that Māori receive far more special privilege and entitlements from the government than Pākehā, and that equality and equity were not possible within such a system. Political leaders are critical to how this hierarchy is maintained, as they have the influence and reach to shape a nation’s norms, values and institutions (Roberts & Rizzo, 2020). When political leaders emphasise anti-immigrant or anti-ethnic minority sentiments, they reinforce racial hierarchies and further marginalise minority groups, making them vulnerable to prejudice and racism. Pedersen et al. (2005) argue that disseminating anti-immigrant sentiments may in fact benefit certain political factions and leaders, so political drive is important to reducing racism. 2.3.6. The media Media portrayals and representations of different ethnic groups have a profound impact on how people perceive individuals and can lead to pervasive stereotypes (Hollinsworth, 2006). Numerous studies conducted in the United States have shown how: • White Americans are most portrayed in television, film and other media while ethnic minorities are under-represented o • The effects of this can include internalised racism amongst ethnic minorities, such as the development of pro-white biases and the reinforcement of Eurocentric standards of beauty When ethnic minorities are represented in the media, they are often misrepresented and portrayed in ways that reinforce negative stereotypes – this is damaging because it is often the main way that the dominant ethnic group learns about ethnic minorities (Hollinsworth, 2006) www.malatest-intl.com Drivers of racism – March 2021 27