From Four Nodes of History: The Human Rights Challenge in the Philippine Security Sector 18 Miller, p. 95; Death For Luzon Bandits; Guerrillas Caught by Col. Smith Will Be Shot or Hanged. Criminals Infest the Island Some American Officers Say the Campaign Is Worse Than Fighting Indians. New York Times, December 13, 15, 1899; San Francisco Call, August 28, 1899, January 11, 1900; Boston Evening Transcript, January 12, 1900. 19 Miller, p. 220; PBS documentary “Crucible of Empire”; Philippine NewsLink interview with Bob Couttie, author of “Hang the Dogs: The True and Tragic History of the Balangiga Massacre”, available on the Internet. 20 Houston Daily Post, April 1902 21 Soldier’s Letters, pamphlet (Anti-Imperialist League, 1899). Reprinted in Philip S. Foner and Richard Winchester, The Anti-Imperialist Reader: A Documentary History of Anti-Imperialism in the United States, Vol. 1 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1984). 22 From Sturtevant’s “Philippine Social Structure and Its relation to Agrarian Unrest” as quoted by Eduardo Lachica in Huk: Philippine Agrarian Society in Revolt. 23 Louis Morton. The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines. Center of Military History. United States Army Washington, D.C. 1953. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 53-63678. Full Text Accessed through the Internet 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid. 88 26 Ibid. 27 “Aboard the transports was the main strength of General Homma’s 14th Army, altogether 43,110 men.5 The major combat strength of the Lingayen Force was drawn from Lt. Gen. Yuichi Tsuchibashi’s 48th Division. Activated in Formosa in late 1940 and as yet untried in battle, this division was composed of the 1st and 2d Formosa Infantry Regiments, the 47th Infantry, and artillery, reconnaissance, engineer, and transport regiments. Attached to it for the landing was a large number of combat and service units, but the 2d Formosa had been lost by the establishment of the Tanaka and Kanno Detachments. Although probably the best motorized division in the Japanese Army at this time, the 48th by American standards could hardly be said to have sufficient motor transportation. One battalion of each infantry regiment was equipped with bicycles. Divisional artillery consisted of the 48th Mountain Artillery, similar to a standard field artillery regiment except that the basic weapon was the 75-mm. mountain gun (pack).” from Louis Morton. The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines. quoting Order of Battle of the Japanese Armed Forces, WD G-2, 1 Mar 45, p. 108; USA vs. Homma, p. 3054-55, testimony of Homma; Handbook of Japanese Military Forces, TM-E-30-480, 15 Sept ‘44, p. 37. 28 These revelations came out from both captured Japanese documents and Homma’s testimony that embarrassed Macarthur. He was hanged despite the fact that he was disliked by the Japanese militarists and forced to retire in 1942 for his anti war sentiments. He no more controlled the 14th IJA during the death march as he had been operationally relieved with the militarists taking over and finishing Corregidor a month later.