Of particular concern are those New Zealanders who face persistently low incomes, material hardship and poor long-term outcomes across a range of dimensions. While Māori and Pasifika are less than a quarter of the population, they are significantly over-represented in these groups. Housing 62. New Zealand’s severely deprived housing population has risen both numerically and proportionately during the twelve-year period between the 2001 and 2013 Census reports.36 Insecure housing exacerbates ill health, and is associated with poorer educational outcomes for children, as they may have to shift schools frequently, have more days off school, and lack an appropriate space in which to do homework. Overcrowding is disproportionately spread across age, ethnic and socioeconomic lines. Data from the 2013 Census indicated that over half of New Zealand’s 72,124 crowded households (representing about 10 percent of the population) have two or more children (at least one child aged between 5 and 14 years) living in them.37 63. The 2013 Census data also indicated that 38% of Pasifika, 20% of Māori and 18% of Asian people live in crowded households, compared to 4% of Europeans.38 Furthermore, of those New Zealanders who live in crowded households, approximately 35,000 (9%) live in households that do not use any form of heating in their houses.39 The highest percentage (16%) is in the Counties Manukau DHB region, where 14,103 people living in crowded households use no heating. This region, home to many of New Zealand’s most economically deprived urban communities, also experienced a 9% increase in overcrowding in the period between the 2006 and 2013 Census surveys.40 64. The Government has taken some action to improve housing quality, which has led to improvements in health outcomes. The Warm Up New Zealand home insulation funding programme has been found to correlate with reduced hospitalisation rates for children in low income households.41 Furthermore, amendments to the Residential Tenancies Act will require mandatory insulation standards for all social housing and rental accommodation by 2019. However, despite these developments, 36 Howden-Chapman P, Home Truths: Confronting New Zealand’s Housing Crisis. Wellington (NZ), Bridget Williams Books, 2015, endnote 35, p. 97, from K Amore, Severe Housing Deprivation 2001-2013, He Kainga Oranga/Housing and Health Research Programme, Wellington. 37 Ministry of Health. 2014. Analysis of Household Crowding based on Census 2013 data. Wellington: Ministry of Health, p vi http://www.health.govt.nz/publication/analysis-household-crowding-based-census-2013-data 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Ibid. 41 Housing and Health He Kainga Oranga, Summary Paper Two: Evaluation of Warm Up New Zealand: Heat Smart Programme, July 2016. 16