11 Conceptualizing and Measuring Modern Democracy Huntington (1993:6-7) notes that by the middle of the 20 century, the democracy debate comprised three general approaches: "As a form of government, democracy has been dened in terms of sources of authority for government, purposes served by government, and procedures for constituting government." The struggle among these orientations, according to Huntington, was resolved by the 1970s with the Schumpeterian view of democracy -- a method of governance emphasizing primarily competitive, popular elections – emerging victorious. th Although most contemporary theorists might agree with Schumpeter's theoretical closure regarding democratic denitions, there are many inclined to disagree with him. They continue to view the attempt to dene democracy as a continuing proposition, one that necessarily includes but also must transcend Schumpeter's minimalist "democratic method" and consider the objectives or ends of democratic governance (O'Donnell, 2000; Ringen, 2007). A broader realm for democratic probing is increasingly becoming more apparent. Beyond the procedural concerns of democratic politics, a whole new world of democratic concerns has opened up. Democracy denitions are going beyond the electoral posts. Illustrative of this dynamic search for more substantive conceptions of democracy is the proliferated alternative meanings of democracy. Heywood (2007:72ff), author of a textbook in political science widely used in the Philippines and a specialist in political theory, lists eight of the currently most common alternative meanings of democracy. The proffered denitions are clearly not mutually exclusive of one another; if anything, nearly all relate primarily to a popular mode of democratic governance, liberal democracy, as Heywood himself later notes. The eight are: Ÿ A system of rule by the poor and disadvantaged Ÿ A form of government in which the people rule themselves directly and continuously without the need for professional politicians or public ofcials Ÿ A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy and privilege Ÿ A system of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing social inequalities Ÿ A system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule Ÿ A system of rule that secures the rights and interests of minorities by placing checks upon the power of the majority Ÿ A means of lling public ofces through a competitive struggle for the popular vote Ÿ A system of government that serves the interests of the people regardless of their participation in political life