Sex-and-gender-based BU CU Maceoacicd Pcicem CoMeclilg women exacerbation of sex-specific divisions of labour in the formal and informal manufacturing and service sectorsin countries of destination, as well as a male-centredculture of entertainment, the latter creating a demand for womenasentertainers. A significant increase in the number of women migrating alone as wage earners has been widely noted as part ofthis trend. 9. Becauseviolations of the humanrights of women migrant workers occur in countries of origin, countries of transit and countries of destination, this general recommendationwill addressall three situationsin ordertofacilitate the use of the Convention,furtherthe rights of women migrant workers and advance substantive equality of women and meninall spheres oftheir lives.It is also recalled that migration is an inherently global phenomenon, requiring cooperation amongStates in multilateral, bilateral and regionallevels. In countries oforigin before departure® 10. Even before they leave home, women migrant workers face myriad human rights concerns,including complete bansorrestrictions on women's out-migration based on sex or sex combinedwith age, marital status, pregnancy or maternity status, occupation-specific restrictions or requirements that women musthave written permission from male relatives to obtain a passport to travel or migrate. Women are sometimes detained by recruiting agents for training in preparation for departure, during which time they may be subject to financial, physical, sexual or psychological abuse. Women mayalso suffer the consequences of restricted access to education, training and reliable information on migration, which may lead to increased vulnerability in relation to employers. Exploitative fees may be charged by employment agents, which sometimes cause women, who generally have fewer assets than men,to suffer greaterfinancial hardships and make them more dependent, for example,if they need to borrow from family, friends, or moneylendersat usurious rates. In countries of origin upon return 11. Women migrant workers may face sex- and gender-based discrimination, including compulsory HIV and AIDS testing for women returnees, moral “rehabilitation” for young womenreturneesand increased personal and social costs compared to men, without adequate gender-responsiveservices. For example, men mayreturn to a stable familysituation, whereas women mayfind disintegration of the family upon their return, with their absence from home regardedas the cause of such disintegration. There may also be a lack of protection against reprisals from exploitative recruiting agents. In countries oftransit 12. Women migrant workers may face a variety of human rights concerns whentransiting through foreign countries. Whentravelling with an agent or escort, women migrants may be abandonedif the agent encounters problemsin transit or upon arrival in the country of destination. Womenare also vulnerable to sexual and physical abuse by agents and escorts whentravelling in countries oftransit. In countries ofdestination 13. Oncetheyreach their destinations, women migrant workers may encountermultiple forms of de jure and de facto discrimination. There are countries whose Governments sometimes imposerestrictions or bans on women's employment in particular sectors. Whatever the situation, women migrant workers face additional hazards compared to men because of gender-insensitive environments that do notallow mobility for women, and that give them little access to relevant information about their rights and entitlements. Gendered notions of appropriate work for womenresult in job opportunities that reflect familial and service functions ascribed to women orthat are in the informal sector. Under such circumstances, 6 Paragraphs 10 and 11 describe some of the sex- and gender-related human rights concerns that women experience in their countries oforigin, both before departure and upon return. Concernsrelated to transit and life abroad are discussedin paragraphs 12 to 22. These sectionsareillustrative and are not meant to be exhaustive. It should be noted that certain human rights concerns described here may render a woman's decision to migrate involuntarily underrelevantinternationallaw; in such cases, reference should be madeto those norms. 17