were aware that they were trans or non-binary, 11 percent reported receiving worse pay or conditions than co-workers while 9 percent reported being denied a promotion. 4.3 The Pacific Pay Gap: construction The Construction and Utilities Grouping is the thirdlargest employer of Pacific peoples as of June 2022, comprising about 12 percent of the Pacific workforce or approximately 21,700 workers.128 It is the secondlargest industry for Pacific men, as approximately 16 percent of Pacific men work in the sector and they comprise approximately 93 percent of Pacific peoples employed in construction.129 Future of work projections suggest that job growth can be expected in the construction sector.130 The Pacific construction workforce has seen intense growth since early 2013.131 In 2021, the median hourly earnings from main job of Pacific men in construction was $28.00 compared to $30.00 for European men, representing a 6.67 per cent pay gap.132 Further, given that construction is a male-dominated industry, little data is available on wages for Pacific women employed in the construction industry.133 A study by Hurt-Suwan and Mahler on the precarious employment of Māori and Pasifika workers in the construction industry found that the cumulative effects of low income, a lack of opportunity to upskill and progress, unstable and irregular work and risk of injury produce adverse social outcomes for Pacific construction workers.134 These adverse social outcomes can be seen in the in-work poverty135 rate for Pacific workers in the construction industry, which is the highest of all ethnic groups at 4.6 percent.136 Pacific construction workers reiterate that their primary concern is the limitations that these broader socioeconomic effects place upon their ability to contribute to the wellbeing of their family and community.137 4.4 The Pacific Pay Gap: manufacturing The manufacturing industry is the second-largest employer of Pacific peoples as of June 2022, comprising about 14 percent of the Pacific workforce or approximately 25,700 workers.138 It is the largest employer of Pacific men, with just over 20 percent of Pacific men working in the sector.139 The sector is also a significant employer of Pacific women, as 9 percent of all Pacific women work in manufacturing.140 The 128 Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. Pacific Peoples in the Labour Market – June 2022 Quarter, 1. https://www. mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/23355-pacific-peoples-labour-market-statistics-snapshot-june-2022. 129 Itinteang, Andrew. “Pacific Workforce Indicators.” Presentation, Pacific Workforce Challenge Report Session, January 31, 2019, 6, 12. . Cochrane and Pacheco, Empirical analysis of Pacifi, Māori and ethnic pay gaps in New Zealand, Auckland: New Zealand Research Institute, AUT, July 2022, 6. 130 E tū. E tū in 2030: Key Trends Affecting E Tū Members and Our Union. Wellington: E tū, 2021. 131 Itinteang, “Pacific Workforce Indicators,” 13. 132 Based on Household Labour Force Survey data (2021) 133 Ibid 134 Hurt-Suwan, Courtney, and Martin L. Mahler. “Social Procurement to Reduce Precarious Employment for Māori and Pasifika Workers in the Construction Industry.” Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online 16, no. 1 (2021): 103, 105, 111112. See also: Chen, Mai. National Culture and its Impact on Workplace Health and Safety and Injury Prevention for Employers and Workers. Auckland: Superdiversity Institute for Law, Policy and Business, 2019, 42. https://www.superdiversity.org/ research-reports/reports/national-culture-and-its-impact-on-workplace-health-and-safety-and-injury-prevention-foremployers-and-workers/. 135 In-work poverty refers to households that have one or more working member yet are still living in poverty. Poverty is measured for a household as being in poverty when their monthly net equivalised income (before housing costs) is below 60% of the median income poverty line as of March 2013. 136 Plum, Alexander, and Gail Pacheco. In-work Poverty in New Zealand: A Focus on Pacific Peoples. Auckland: New Zealand Work Research Institute, 2019, 17. https://workresearch.aut.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/350654/Pacific-In-Work-PovertyReport.pdf. 137 Hurt-Suwan and Mahler, “Social Procurement,” 108; Chen, National Culture, 44-45; New Zealand Human Rights Commission, Talanoa, 25. 138 Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment, Pacific Peoples in the Labour Market – June 2022 Quarter, 1. 139 Cochrane and Pacheco, Empirical analysis of Pacifi, Māori and ethnic pay gaps in New Zealand, Auckland: New Zealand Research Institute, AUT, July 2022, 6. 140 Cochrane and Pacheco, Empirical analysis of Pacifi, Māori and ethnic pay gaps in New Zealand, 6. Pacific Pay Gap Inquiry Literature Review 23