The experiences of Pacific women in the workplace in relation to discrimination and pay inequity indicate the existence of the glass ceiling.107 Pacific women who participated in Tupou’s research shared negative experiences when discussing promotion opportunities and pay equity, acknowledging their ethnic heritage and gender were met with hostility within the workplace by their supervisors and nonPacific co-workers.108 Studies also show that Pacific women are more likely to remain in part-time work than full-time work to meet family or communal obligations, showing that Pacific women are typically employed in reduced hours of work.109 Potential explanations for such findings reflect the cultural and familial obligations Pacific women carry as daughters and mothers.110 The increasingly lower hourly rates of pay for Pacific women reveal that Pacific women are further marginalised as the lack of pay equity amongst Pacific women and men means Pacific women must work more hours to earn the same amount that Pacific men do. Pacific women who are the sole providers for their families also have obligations and commitments to their family and community that go beyond providing financial income.111 Such obligations and commitments carry just as much importance as providing income, reflecting Pacific values that regard the work of holding the family together as both esteemed and valuable.112 the average hourly rates of different migrant groups. The survey found that there is not only a gap between workers originating from overseas and those from Aotearoa New Zealand but also between workers from different overseas countries.114 More specifically, it found that migrants from South Africa, Northern America, the UK and Europe “all earned a higher average hourly wage than people born in New Zealand”.115 By contrast, people born in the Pacific, Asia and the rest of the Americas earned significantly lower wages than those born in New Zealand. This gap persisted no matter how long migrants from these regions had lived and worked in Aotearoa New Zealand. For example, it was reported that engineering professionals from the UK, South Africa and Northern America all earned an average wage above $45 an hour. By contrast, engineering professionals from India, China and the Pacific Islands all had hourly wages below $40.116 The survey outlined several factors that contribute to this gap including English language proficiency, lack of recognition of non-European or American professional qualifications, institutional barriers and discrimination.117 While the gendered nature of migrant pay gaps was beyond the scope of this study, the report noted that it is “important to understand how these dynamics change when gender is added to the equation. Particularly, how these gaps look in highly feminised industries and occupations”.118 4.2.2 The experiences of Pacific migrants The literature makes it clear that there needs to be a focus on the particular experiences of Pacific migrants in the workforce. Research discussed in the previous section already noted how gender shaped the experience of Pacific migrants in the labour market. Studies show that Pacific migrants A survey published by Diversity Works NZ and BERL in 2022 affirmed the persistence of the migrant pay gap in Aotearoa New Zealand.113 Drawing on data from the 2013 and 2018 Censuses as well as the Inland Revenue Department, the report compared 107 ‘Glass ceiling’ often refers to an unacknowledged barrier to advancement in a profession: Cotter, David, Joan M. Hermsen, Seth Ovadia, and Reeve Vanneman. “The glass ceiling effect.” Social Forces 80, no. 2 (2001), 655. 108 Tupou, Holeva. “The Effect of the Glass Ceiling on Pacific Island Women in New Zealand Organisations.” Master’s thesis, Auckland University of Technology, 2011, 70. https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/handle/10292/4487. 109 Fa’anunu, Sinama Tupou. “Experiences of Tongan Women Migrants at Paid Work in New Zealand.”(PhD dissertation, University of Waikato, 2007, 80. 110 Naepi, Sereana. “Pacific Peoples, Higher Education and Feminisms.” In Decolonization and Feminisms in Global Teaching and Learning, edited by Sara de Jong, Rosalba Icaza, and Olivia Rutazibwa. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018, 17, 21. 111 Fa’anunu, “Experiences of Tongan Women Migrants,” 83. 112 Naepi, “Pacific Peoples, Higher Education and Feminisms,” 11-24. 113 Reid et al. Migrant Pay Gap. Auckland: Diversity Works NZ, 2022. https://diversityworksnz.org.nz/media/5026/migrant-paygap-narrative-report-final.pdf 114 Reid et al., Migrant Pay Gap, 2. 115 Reid et al., Migrant Pay Gap, 2. 116 Reid et al., Migrant Pay Gap, 5. 117 Reid et al., Migrant Pay Gap, 3-6. 118 Reid et al., Migrant Pay Gap, 5. Pacific Pay Gap Inquiry Literature Review 21