15 • Rights relating to body and sex: sexual exploitation 3) Categorizations of human rights violations based on the spatial movements of North Korean refugee women Women who have fled North Korea, entered South Korea, and resettled here moved across at least three distinguishable spaces. The first space refers to the area in North Korea where they were born and grew up. The area where these women took up temporary settlement (China, Mongolia, Thailand, etc.) after having risked escape from North Korea and before entering South Korea constitutes the second space. Eventually, South Korea becomes the final destination of their long itinerary, i.e. their flight from North Korea.15 <Table 2-3> presents the various categories of human rights violations found in the above research reports rearranged by space: from human rights abuses arising in North Korea, those occurring in China and other countries, to those materialising during resettlement in South Korea <Table 2-3> Categorizations of human rights violations based on the spatial movement of North Korean refugee women Space Categorization of human rights violations • • • North Korea • • • • • 15 Gender oppression within North Korean society Daily oppression with regard to the private sphere Sexual torture, forced abortions in camps for political prisoners Additional punishment for women’s illegal border-crossing Right to existence: discrimination against women in the distribution system Right to economic activity: wage discrimination against women Rights concerning marriage and family: sexual discrimination Rights pertaining to body and sex: sexual exploitation Currently, there are also cases of onward migration to third countries after a period of stay in South Korea. This research does not deal with this specific aspect.